Material stricken through is stuff that doesn't support Carr's thesis. Mostly this will stuff that's not at all concern the arguments, but some will mere repetitions of that thesis, or things that simply assume that the thesis is true. Stuff like this sometimes feels like it supports a thesis, but it doesn't.
Stuff highlighted is stuff I think might be taken as offering something like a reason for thinking that Carr's thesis is true, or at least might be taken as an argument..
Stuff in red is examples of actions that Carr thinks or definitely appears to think are ethically okay, which he offers as examples of things other people mistakenly think are not okay.
Stuff in between I've just left alone.Is Business Bluffing Ethical?
by Albert Z. Carr
From the Magazine (January 1968)
A respected businessman
with whom I discussed the theme of this article remarked with some
heat, “You mean to say you’re going to encourage men to bluff? Why,
bluffing is nothing more than a form of lying! You’re advising them to
lie!”
I agreed that the basis of
private morality is a respect for truth and that the closer a
businessman comes to the truth, the more he deserves respect. At the
same time, I
suggested that most bluffing in business might be regarded
simply as game strategy—much like bluffing in poker, which does not
reflect on the morality of the bluffer.
I quoted Henry Taylor, the British statesman who pointed out that “falsehood ceases to be falsehood when it is understood on all sides that the truth is not expected to be spoken”—an exact description of bluffing in poker, diplomacy, and business.. I cited the analogy of the criminal court, where the criminal is not expected to tell the truth when he pleads “not guilty.” Everyone from the judge down takes it for granted that the job of the defendant’s attorney is to get his client off, not to reveal the truth; and this is considered ethical practice. I mentioned Representative Omar Burleson, the Democrat from Texas, who was quoted as saying, in regard to the ethics of Congress, “Ethics is a barrel of worms”1—a pungent summing up of the problem of deciding who is ethical in politics.
I reminded my friend that millions of businessmen feel constrained every
day to say yes to their bosses when they secretly believe no and that this
is generally accepted as permissible strategy when the alternative might
be the loss of a job. The essential point, I said, is that the
ethics of business are game ethics, different from the ethics of
religion.
He remained unconvinced.
Referring to the company of which he is president, he declared: “Maybe
that’s good enough for some businessmen, but I can tell you that we
pride ourselves on our ethics. In 30 years not one customer has ever
questioned my word or asked to check our figures. We’re loyal to our
customers and fair to our suppliers. I regard my handshake on a deal as
a contract. I’ve never entered into price fixing schemes with my
competitors. I’ve never allowed my salesmen to spread injurious rumors
about other companies. Our union contract is the best in our industry.
And, if I do say so myself, our ethical standards are of the highest!”
He really was saying, without
realizing it, that he was living up to the ethical standards of the
business game—which are a far cry from those of private life. Like a
gentlemanly poker player, he did not play in cahoots with others at the
table, try to smear their reputations, or hold back chips he owed them.
But this same fine man, at
that very time, was allowing one of his products to be advertised in a
way that made it sound a great deal better than it actually was. Another
item in his product line was notorious among dealers for its “built-in
obsolescence.” He was holding back from the market a much-improved
product because he did not want it to interfere with sales of the
inferior item it would have replaced. He had joined with certain of his
competitors in hiring a lobbyist to push a state legislature, by methods
that he preferred not to know too much about, into amending a bill then
being enacted.
In his view these things had
nothing to do with ethics; they were merely normal business practice. He
himself undoubtedly avoided outright false-hoods—never lied in so many
words. But the entire organization that he ruled was deeply involved in
numerous strategies of deception.
Most executives from time to time are almost compelled, in the interests
of their companies or themselves, to practice some form of deception when
negotiating with customers, dealers, labor unions, government officials,
or even other departments of their companies. By conscious
misstatements, concealment of pertinent facts, or exaggeration—in short,
by bluffing—they seek to persuade others to agree with them. I think it
is fair to say that if the individual executive refuses to bluff from
time to time—if he feels obligated to tell the truth, the whole truth,
and nothing but the truth—he is ignoring opportunities permitted under
the rules and is at a heavy disadvantage in his business dealings.
But here and there a businessman is unable to reconcile himself to the
bluff in which he plays a part. His conscience, perhaps spurred by
religious idealism, troubles him. He feels guilty; he may develop an ulcer
or a nervous tic. Before any executive can make profitable use of the
strategy of the bluff, he needs to make sure that in bluffing he will not
lose self-respect or become emotionally disturbed. If he is to
reconcile personal integrity and high standards of honesty with the
practical requirements of business, he must feel that his bluffs are
ethically justified. The justification rests on the fact that business,
as practiced by individuals as well as by corporations, has the
impersonal character of a game—a game that demands both special strategy
and an understanding of its special ethics.
The game is played at all
levels of corporate life, from the highest to the lowest. At the very
instant that a man decides to enter business, he may be forced into a
game situation, as is shown by the recent experience of a Cornell honor
graduate who applied for a job with a large company:
This applicant was given a
psychological test which included the statement, “Of the following
magazines, check any that you have read either regularly or from time to
time, and double-check those which interest you most: Reader’s Digest,
Time, Fortune, Saturday Evening Post, The New Republic, Life, Look,
Ramparts, Newsweek, Business Week, U.S. News & World Report, The
Nation, Playboy, Esquire, Harper’s, Sports Illustrated.”
His tastes in reading were broad, and at one time or another he had read
almost all of these magazines. He was a subscriber to The New Republic,
an enthusiast for Ramparts, and an avid student of the pictures in
Playboy. He was not sure whether his interest in Playboy would be held
against him, but he had a shrewd suspicion that if he confessed to an
interest in Ramparts and The New Republic, he would be thought a
liberal, a radical, or at least an intellectual, and his chances of
getting the job, which he needed, would greatly diminish. He therefore
checked five of the more conservative magazines. Apparently it was a
sound decision, for he got the job.
He had made a game player’s
decision, consistent with business ethics.
A similar case is that of a magazine space salesman who, owing to a
merger, suddenly found himself out of a job:
This man was 58, and, in
spite of a good record, his chance of getting a job elsewhere in a
business where youth is favored in hiring practice was not good. He was
a vigorous, healthy man, and only a considerable amount of gray in his
hair suggested his age. Before beginning his job search he touched up
his hair with a black dye to confine the gray to his temples. He knew
that the truth about his age might well come out in time, but he
calculated that he could deal with that situation when it arose. He and
his wife decided that he could easily pass for 45, and he so stated his
age on his resume.
This was a lie; yet within the accepted rules of the business game, no
moral culpability attaches to it.
The Poker Analogy
We can learn a good deal about the nature of business by comparing
it with poker. While
both have a large element of chance, in the long run the winner is the
man who plays with steady skill. In both games ultimate victory requires
intimate knowledge of the rules, insight into the psychology of the
other players, a bold front, a considerable amount of self-discipline,
and the ability to respond swiftly and effectively to opportunities
provided by chance.
No one expects poker to be played on the ethical principles preached in
churches. In poker it is right and proper to bluff a friend out of the
rewards of being dealt a good hand. A player feels no more than a slight
twinge of sympathy, if that, when—with nothing better than a single ace
in his hand—he strips a heavy loser, who holds a pair, of the rest of
his chips. It was up to the other fellow to protect himself. In the
words of an excellent poker player, former President Harry Truman, “If
you can’t stand the heat, stay out of the kitchen.” If one shows mercy
to a loser in poker, it is a personal gesture, divorced from the rules
of the game.
Poker has its special ethics, and here I am not referring to rules
against cheating. The man who keeps an ace up his sleeve or who marks
the cards is more than unethical; he is a crook, and can be punished as
such—kicked out of the game or,—in the Old West, shot.
In contrast to the cheat, the unethical poker player is one who, while
abiding by the letter of the rules, finds ways to put the other players at
an unfair disadvantage. Perhaps he unnerves them with loud talk. Or he
tries to get them drunk. Or he plays in cahoots with someone else at the
table. Ethical poker players frown on such tactics.
Poker’s own brand of ethics
is different from the ethical ideals of civilized human relationships.
The game calls for distrust of the other fellow. It ignores the claim of
friendship. Cunning deception and concealment of one’s strength and
intentions, not kindness and openheartedness, are vital in poker.
No one thinks any the worse of poker on that account. And no one
should think any the worse of the game of business because its standards
of right and wrong differ from the prevailing traditions of morality in
our society.
Discard the Golden Rule
This view of business is
especially worrisome to people without much business experience. A
minister of my acquaintance once protested that business cannot possibly
function in our society unless it is based on the Judeo-Christian system
of ethics. He told me:
“I know some businessmen have supplied call girls to customers, but
there are always a few rotten apples in every barrel. That doesn’t mean
the rest of the fruit isn’t sound. Surely the vast majority of
businessmen are ethical. I myself am acquainted with many who adhere to
strict codes of ethics based fundamentally on religious teachings. They
contribute to good causes. They participate in community activities.
They cooperate with other companies to improve working conditions in
their industries. Certainly they are not indifferent to ethics.”
That most businessmen are not indifferent to ethics in their private
lives, everyone will agree. My
point is that in their office lives they cease to be private citizens;
they become game players who must be guided by a somewhat different set
of ethical standards.
The point was forcefully made to me by a Midwestern executive who has
given a good deal of thought to the question:
“So long as a businessman complies with the laws of the land and avoids
telling malicious lies, he’s ethical. If the law as written gives a man
a wide-open chance to make a killing, he’d be a fool not to take
advantage of it. If he doesn’t, somebody else will. There’s no
obligation on him to stop and consider who is going to get hurt.
If the law says he can do it, that’s all the justification he needs.
There’s nothing unethical about that. It’s just plain business sense.”
This executive (call him
Robbins) took the stand that even industrial espionage, which is frowned
on by some businessmen, ought not to be considered unethical. He
recalled a recent meeting of the National Industrial Conference Board
where an authority on marketing made a speech in which he deplored the
employment of spies by business organizations. More and more companies,
he pointed out, find it cheaper to penetrate the secrets of competitors
with concealed cameras and microphones or by bribing employees than to
set up costly research and design departments of their own. A whole
branch of the electronics industry has grown up with this trend, he
continued, providing equipment to make industrial espionage easier.
Disturbing? The marketing expert found it so. But when it came to a
remedy, he could only appeal to “respect for the golden rule.” Robbins
thought this a confession of defeat, believing that the golden rule, for
all its value as an ideal for society, is simply not feasible as a guide
for business. A good part of the time the businessman is trying to do
unto others as he hopes others will not do unto him. Robbins continued:
“Espionage of one kind or another has become so common in business
that it’s like taking a drink during Prohibition—it’s not considered
sinful. And we don’t even have Prohibition where espionage is
concerned; the law is very tolerant in this area. There’s no more shame
for a business that uses secret agents than there is for a nation. Bear in
mind that there already is at least one large corporation—you can buy its
stock over the counter—that makes millions by providing counterespionage
service to industrial firms. Espionage in business is not an ethical
problem; it’s an established technique of business competition.”
‘We don’t make the laws.’
Wherever we turn in business, we can perceive the sharp distinction
between its ethical standards and those of the churches. Newspapers abound
with sensational stories growing out of this distinction:
We read one day that Senator Philip A. Hart of Michigan has attacked food
processors for deceptive packaging of numerous
products.
The next day there is a Congressional to-do over Ralph Nader’s book,
Unsafe At Any Speed, which demonstrates that automobile
companies for years have neglected the safety of car-owning families.
Then another Senator, Lee Metcalf of Montana, and journalist Vic Reinemer
show in their book, Overcharge, the methods by which utility
companies elude regulating government bodies to extract unduly large
payments from users of electricity.
These are merely dramatic
instances of a prevailing condition; there is hardly a major industry at
which a similar attack could not be aimed. Critics of business regard
such behavior as unethical, but the companies concerned know that they
are merely playing the business game.
Among the most respected of our business institutions are the insurance
companies. A group of insurance executives meeting recently in New
England was startled when their guest speaker, social critic Daniel
Patrick Moynihan, roundly berated them for “unethical” practices. They
had been guilty, Moynihan alleged, of using outdated actuarial tables to
obtain unfairly high premiums. They habitually delayed the hearings of
lawsuits against them in order to tire out the plaintiffs and win cheap
settlements. In their employment
policies they used ingenious devices to discriminate against certain
minority groups.
It was difficult for the audience to deny the validity of these charges.
But these men were business game players. Their reaction to Moynihan’s
attack was much the same as that of the automobile manufacturers to Nader,
of the utilities to Senator Metcalf, and of the food processors to Senator
Hart. If the laws governing their businesses change, or if public
opinion becomes clamorous, they will make the necessary adjustments. But
morally they have in their view done nothing wrong. As long as they
comply with the letter of the law, they are within their rights to
operate their businesses as they see fit.
The small business is in the
same position as the great corporation in this respect. For example:
In 1967 a key manufacturer was accused of providing master keys for
automobiles to mail-order customers, although it was obvious that some
of the purchasers might be automobile thieves. His defense was plain and
straightforward. If there was nothing in the law to prevent him from
selling his keys to anyone who ordered them, it was not up to him to
inquire as to his customers’ motives. Why was it any worse, he insisted,
for him to sell car keys by mail, than for mail-order houses to sell
guns that might be used for murder? Until the law was changed, the key
manufacturer could regard himself as being just as ethical as any other
businessman by the rules of the business game.7
Violations of the ethical ideals of society are common in business, but
they are not necessarily violations of business principles. Each
year the Federal Trade Commission orders hundreds of companies, many of
them of the first magnitude, to “cease and desist” from practices which,
judged by ordinary standards, are of questionable morality but which are
stoutly defended by the companies concerned.
In one case, a firm manufacturing a well-known mouthwash was accused of using a cheap form of alcohol possibly deleterious
to health. The company’s chief executive, after testifying in
Washington, made this comment privately:
“We broke no law. We’re in a highly competitive industry. If we’re going
to stay in business, we have to look for profit wherever the law permits.
We don’t make the laws. We obey them. Then why do we have to put up with
this ‘holier than thou’ talk about ethics? It’s sheer hypocrisy. We’re not
in business to promote ethics. Look at the
cigarette companies, for God’s sake! If the ethics aren’t
embodied in the laws by the men who made them, you can’t expect
businessmen to fill the lack. Why, a sudden submission to Christian
ethics by businessmen would bring about the greatest economic upheaval
in history!”
It may be noted that the government failed to prove its case
against him.
Cast illusions aside
Talk about ethics by businessmen is often a thin decorative coating over
the hard realities of the game:
Once I listened to a speech by a young executive who pointed to a new
industry code as proof that his company and its competitors were deeply
aware of their responsibilities to society. It was a code of ethics, he
said. The industry was going to police itself, to dissuade constituent
companies from wrongdoing. His eyes shone with conviction and
enthusiasm.
The same day there was a meeting in a hotel room where the industry’s top
executives met with the “czar” who was to administer the new code, a man
of high repute. No one who was present could doubt their common attitude.
In their eyes the code was designed primarily to forestall a move by the
federal government to impose stern restrictions on the industry. They felt
that the code would hamper them a good deal less than new federal laws
would. It was, in other words, conceived as a protection for the industry,
not for the public.
The young executive accepted the surface explanation of the code; these
leaders, all experienced game players, did not deceive themselves for a
moment about its purpose.
The illusion that business can afford to be guided by ethics as conceived
in private life is often fostered by speeches and articles containing such
phrases as, “It pays to be ethical,” or, “Sound ethics is good
business.” Actually this is not an ethical position at all; it is a
self-serving calculation in disguise. The speaker is really
saying that in the long run a company can make more money if it does not
antagonize competitors, suppliers, employees, and customers by squeezing
them too hard. He is saying that oversharp policies reduce ultimate gains.
That is true, but it has nothing to do with ethics. The underlying
attitude is much like that in the familiar story of the shopkeeper who
finds an extra $20 bill in the cash register, debates with himself the
ethical problem—should he tell his partner?—and finally decides to share
the money because the gesture will give him an edge over the s.o.b. the
next time they quarrel.
I think it is fair to sum up
the prevailing attitude of businessmen on ethics as follows:
We live in what is probably the most competitive of the world’s
civilized societies. Our customs encourage a high degree of aggression
in the individual’s striving for success. Business is our main area of
competition, and it has been ritualized into a game of strategy. The
basic rules of the game have been set by the government, which attempts
to detect and punish business frauds. But as long as a company does not
transgress the rules of the game set by law, it has the legal right to
shape its strategy without reference to anything but its profits. If it
takes a long-term view of its profits, it will preserve amicable
relations, so far as possible, with those with whom it deals. A wise
businessman will not seek advantage to the point where he generates
dangerous hostility among employees, competitors, customers, government,
or the public at large. But decisions in this area are, in the final
test, decisions of strategy, not of ethics.
The Individual & the Game
An individual within a company often finds it difficult to adjust to the
requirements of the business game. He tries to preserve his private
ethical standards in situations that call for game strategy. When he is
obliged to carry out company policies that challenge his conception of
himself as an ethical man, he suffers.
It disturbs him when he is ordered, for instance, to deny
a raise to a man who deserves it, to fire an employee of long standing,
to prepare advertising that he believes to be misleading, to conceal
facts that he feels customers are entitled to know, to cheapen the
quality of materials used in the manufacture of an established product,
to sell as new a product that he knows to be rebuilt, to exaggerate the
curative powers of a medicinal preparation, or to coerce dealers.
There are some fortunate executives who, by the nature of their work and
circumstances, never have to face problems of this kind. But in one form
or another the ethical dilemma is felt sooner or later by most
businessmen. Possibly the dilemma is most painful not when the company
forces the action on the executive but when he originates it himself—that
is, when he has taken or is contemplating a step which is in his own
interest but which runs counter to his early moral conditioning. To
illustrate:
The manager of an export department, eager to show rising sales, is
pressed by a big customer to provide invoices which, while containing no
overt falsehood that would violate a U.S. law, are so worded that the
customer may be able to evade certain taxes in his homeland.
A company president finds that an aging executive, within a few years of
retirement and his pension, is not as productive as formerly. Should he be
kept on?
The produce manager of a supermarket debates with himself whether to get rid of a lot of half-rotten tomatoes by including
one, with its good side exposed, in every tomato six-pack.
An accountant discovers that he has taken an
improper deduction on his company’s tax return and fears the
consequences if he calls the matter to the president’s attention, though
he himself has done nothing illegal. Perhaps if he says nothing, no one
will notice the error.
A chief executive officer is asked by his directors to comment on a rumor
that he owns stock in another company with
which he has placed large orders. He could deny it, for the stock is in
the name of his son-in-law and he has earlier formally instructed
his son-in-law to sell the holding.
Temptations of this kind constantly arise in business. If an
executive allows himself to be torn between a decision based on business
considerations and one based on his private ethical code, he exposes
himself to a grave psychological strain.
This is not to say that sound
business strategy necessarily runs counter to ethical ideals. They may
frequently coincide; and when they do, everyone is gratified. But the
major tests of every move in business, as in all games of strategy, are
legality and profit. A man who intends to be a winner in the business
game must have a game player’s attitude.
The business strategist’s decisions must be as impersonal as those of a
surgeon performing an operation—concentrating on objective and
technique, and subordinating personal feelings. If the chief executive
admits that his son-in-law owns the stock, it is because he stands to
lose more if the fact comes out later than if he states it boldly and at
once. If the supermarket manager orders the rotten tomatoes to be
discarded, he does so to avoid an increase in consumer complaints and a
loss of goodwill. The company president decides not to fire the elderly
executive in the belief that the negative reaction of other employees
would in the long run cost the company more than it would lose in
keeping him and paying his pension.
All sensible businessmen prefer to be truthful, but they seldom feel
inclined to tell the whole truth. In the business game truth-telling
usually has to be kept within narrow limits if trouble is to be avoided.
The point was neatly made a long time ago (in 1888) by one of John D.
Rockefeller’s associates, Paul Babcock, to Standard Oil Company executives
who were about to testify before a government investigating committee: “Parry every question with answers which, while
perfectly truthful, are evasive of bottom facts.” This was, is,
and probably always will be regarded as wise and permissible business
strategy.
For office use only
An executive’s family life can easily be dislocated if he fails to make
a sharp distinction between the ethical systems of the home and the
office—or if his wife does not grasp that distinction. Many a
businessman who has remarked to his wife, “I had to let Jones go today”
or “I had to admit to the boss that Jim has been goofing off lately,”
has been met with an indignant protest. “How could you do a thing like
that? You know Jones is over 50 and will have a lot of trouble getting
another job.” Or, “You did that to Jim? With his wife ill and all the
worry she’s been having with the kids?”
If the executive insists that he had no choice because the profits of
the company and his own security were involved, he may see a certain
cool and ominous reappraisal in his wife’s eyes. Many wives are not
prepared to accept the fact that business operates with a special code
of ethics. An illuminating illustration of this comes from a Southern
sales executive who related a conversation he had had with his wife at a
time when a hotly contested political campaign was being waged in their
state:
“I made the mistake of telling her that I had had lunch with Colby, who
gives me about half my business. Colby mentioned that his company had a
stake in the election. Then he said, ‘By the way, I’m treasurer of the
citizens’ committee for Lang. I’m collecting contributions. Can I count
on you for a hundred dollars?’
“Well, there I was. I was opposed to Lang, but I knew Colby. If he
withdrew his business I could be in a bad spot. So I just smiled and
wrote out a check then and there. He thanked me, and we started to talk
about his next order. Maybe he thought I shared his political views. If
so, I wasn’t going to lose any sleep over it.
“I should have had sense enough not to tell Mary about it. She hit the
ceiling. She said she was disappointed in me. She said I hadn’t acted
like a man, that I should have stood up to Colby.
“I said, ‘Look, it was an either-or situation. I had to do it or risk
losing the business.’
“She came back at me with, ‘I don’t believe it. You could have been
honest with him. You could have said that you didn’t feel you ought to
contribute to a campaign for a man you weren’t going to vote for. I’m
sure he would have understood.’
“I said, ‘Mary, you’re a wonderful woman, but you’re way off the track.
Do you know what would have happened if I had said that? Colby would
have smiled and said, “Oh, I didn’t realize. Forget it.” But in his eyes
from that moment I would be an oddball, maybe a bit of a radical. He
would have listened to me talk about his order and would have promised
to give it consideration. After that I wouldn’t hear from him for a
week. Then I would telephone and learn from his secretary that he wasn’t
yet ready to place the order. And in about a month I would hear through
the grapevine that he was giving his business to another company. A
month after that I’d be out of a job.’
“She was silent for a while. Then she said, ‘Tom, something is wrong
with business when a man is forced to choose between his family’s
security and his moral obligation to himself. It’s easy for me to say
you should have stood up to him—but if you had, you might have felt you
were betraying me and the kids. I’m sorry that you did it, Tom, but I
can’t blame you. Something is wrong with business!’”
This wife saw the problem in terms of moral obligation as conceived
in private life; her husband saw it as a matter of game strategy. As a
player in a weak position, he felt that he could not afford to indulge
an ethical sentiment that might have cost him his seat at the table.
Playing to win
Some men might challenge the Colbys of business—might accept serious
setbacks to their business careers rather than risk a feeling of moral
cowardice. They merit our respect—but as private individuals, not
businessmen. When the skillful player of the business game is compelled to
submit to unfair pressure, he does not castigate himself for moral
weakness. Instead, he strives to put himself into a mark position where he
can defend himself against such pressures in the future without loss.
If a man plans to take a seat
in the business game, he owes it to himself to master the principles by
which the game is played, including its special ethical outlook. He can
then hardly fail to recognize that an occasional bluff may well be
justified in terms of the game’s ethics and warranted in terms of
economic necessity. Once he clears his mind on this point, he is in a
good position to match his strategy against that of the other players.
He can then determine objectively whether a bluff in a given situation
has a good chance of succeeding and can decide when and how to bluff,
without a feeling of ethical transgression.
To be a winner, a man must play to win. This does not mean that he must be
ruthless, cruel, harsh, or treacherous. On the contrary, the better his
reputation for integrity, honesty, and decency, the better his chances of
victory will be in the long run. But from time to time every businessman,
like every poker player, is offered a choice between certain loss or
bluffing within the legal rules of the game. If he is not resigned
to losing, if he wants to rise in his company and industry, then in such
a crisis he will bluff—and bluff hard.
Every now and then one meets a successful businessman who has conveniently
forgotten the small or large deceptions that he practiced on his way to
fortune. “God gave me my money,” old John D. Rockefeller once piously told
a Sunday school class. It would be a rare tycoon in our time who would
risk the horse laugh with which such a remark would be greeted.
In the last third of the twentieth century even children are aware that if
a man has become prosperous in business, he has sometimes departed from
the strict truth in order to overcome obstacles or has practiced the more
subtle deceptions of the half-truth or the misleading omission. Whatever
the form of the bluff, it is an integral part of the game, and the
executive who does not master its techniques is not likely to accumulate
much money or power.
--- * ---
That . . . . was a lot more difficult than I thought it would be. And I'm not sure I did it right. As you get into the article, you might make different, and even better choices.
The point is to, as best you can, to do the following things:
1. Figure out what exactly the writer's thesis is,
2. Gain as good a picture of the writer's arguments as possible.
Next step is to bring all the thesis stuff together, and bring all the argument stuff together.
Copyright © 2024 by Martin C. Young